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Combating Climate Change: A History of International Efforts |
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Growing scientific evidences in the 1980s
linking global climate change
with greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from
human activities prompted several governments to collectively address
the emerging concern about the impacts of global warming.In 1990 the UN General Assembly
established the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC) for a
Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC). The Convention, drafted
by the INC, was adopted on 9 May 1992. It was signed in June at the UN
Conference on Environment and Development, or the Earth Summit, in Rio
de Janeiro by 154 states and the European Union (EU). The Convention
entered into force on 21 March 1994. By November 1999, 181 States and
the EU had ratified the Convention, which committed signatories to make
voluntary efforts to curtail their GHG emissions (1, 2) In February 1995 the INC was dissolved and the Conference of Parties (COP), comprising all members who have ratified the Convention, became the decisionmaking body of the Convention. The COP is responsible for promoting and reviewing the implementation of the Convention, and keeping the entire process on track (3). The Framework Convention on Climate Change The objective of the Convention is to achieve "stabilization of greenhouse gas concentration in the atmosphere at a level that will prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system" (FCCC Article 2). The Convention further states that "such a level should be achieved within a time frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adjust naturally to climate change, to ensure that food production is not threatened and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner". The Convention notes that the largest share of historical and current global emissions of greenhouse gases has been contributed by the industrialized countries. It also notes that the per capita emissions in developing countries are still relatively low, but will increase in the process of economic development. Considering the global nature of Climate Change, the Convention calls for appropriate international response in accordance with each country's "common but differentiated responsibilities", and assigns the lead in combating climate change to industrialized countries. Under the Convention industrialized countries (members of the Organization for Economic Development (OECD) and the states of Central and Eastern Europe, collectively called Annex I countries, make voluntary commitments to limit their emissions of greenhouse gases so that by 2000 they are emitting no more than they were in 1990 (4). No commitments are required of the developing countries (referred to as the non-Annex 1 parties) in recognition of their need for development. The industrialized countries are also expected to provide "new and additional financial resources" (rather than redirect existing development aid) to help finance greenhouse gas reduction projects as well as promote and finance transfer of environmentally sound technologies to non-Annex 1 countries. The FCCC establishes a framework of principles and institutions, and a process for parties to agree to specific actions. It also provides for review and integration of additional commitments in response to changes in "scientific understanding and political will" .Role of the Global Environment Facility The Convention entrusted the Global Environment Facility (GEF) to operate a financial mechanism to provide funds for greenhouse gas emission abatement projects and technologies. The COP sets policies, programme priorities and eligibility criteria related to the Convention (1,3). GEF’s core fund has about US $ 2 billion to support the programme (5). Much of the GEF’s money has gone not to projects but to enabling activities, helping developing countries comply with their reporting and internal assessment responsibilities. The negotiations among the countries has centered around how emissions quotas should be determined for the countries. Should every country try to stabilize where it is now? Or should the industrialized countries reduce emissions, while the emissions continue to grow in developing countries? Should emissions be determined on a historical or a per capita basis? Developing countries have argued that no emissions limits should impede their economic development. Industrialized countries, while accepting a responsibilitiy to set and meet emissions reduction targets in industrialized countries first, they also argue that there are many cost-effective opportunities is for developing countries to become more energy efficient. Several mechanisms have been negotiated into the Convention that allow developed countries to pay for and get credit for emissions abatement in developing countries (6). Six COP meetings COP-1 was held in Berlin in 1995 where three issues dominated the proceedings: the need to clearly define adequate commitments, elaborate on financial mechanisms, and set the criteria for joint implementation of projects (7). The EU proposed to stabilize its emissions by 2000. The G77 countries (including India) and China agreed to negotiate for a mandate to ask for legally binding commitments from Annex 1 signatories. The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) was particularly concerned that global efforts to reduce emissions from use of fossil fuel may have serious impacts on its economies. It wanted protection from any stronger a Convention and even sought compensation for the economic losses they may have to face as a consequence of these abatement initiatives (6). The G77 countries also agreed to participate in experimental abatement projects with developed countries, the so-called Activities Implemented Jointly (AIJ) Pilot Phase. Also in 1995 The Second Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change was published. The report set to rest some of the scientific uncertainty around the issue of climate change by stating that it is a real long-term trend and that it is caused mainly by human activities. The report reinforced the need for concerted abatement efforts. In response, Germany called for a 10 per cent abatement by 2005 and 15-20 per cent by 2010 using the 1990 baseline. At the COP-2 in Geneva in 1996 USA stated that it was examining stabilization schedules for periods only beyond the year 2000. Accordingly it proposed a framework of broad abatement goals achievable over longer timeframes. The EU however reiterated its commitment to work towards the year 2000 goal. The Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS) was particularly happy with the EU commitment since they saw a ray of hope against the potential acceleration of global warming which could lead to their submergence (6). In October 1997 Brazil proposed a 30 per cent reduction in emissions and the need for a Clean Development Fund to finance investments supporting abatement tasks in developing countries. While EU was willing to look at a 7.5 per cent reduction possibly by 2005 and 15 per cent by 2010, the US was keen only on a time frame of 2008-2012 as the period for demonstrable stabilization of emissions. COP-3 was held at Kyoto in December 1997.
Delegates approved the Kyoto Protocol, which set terms for
legally binding commitments for the industrialized countries. It also
proposed mechanisms to enable countries to move towards cleaner
technology (8 The Kyoto Protocol lists six greenhouse gases whose emissions should be reduced and controlled. They are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6). It does not list GHGs already included in the ozone depletion abatement under the Montreal Protocol. The Kyoto Protocol calls for: Emissions Reduction Industrialized countries (listed in Annex B in the Protocol) agreed, to limit their greenhouse gas emissions, setting themselves Quantified Emission Limitation and Reduction Objectives (QELROs). The overall reduction limit that they have jointly committed themselves to is 5 per cent below their 1990 levels. They will achieve these targets in the period 2008 - 2012 (termed the first commitment period) (9). Supplementarity Parties included in Annex B may transfer emission reduction units (ERUs) among themselves, or aquire certified emissions reductions (CERs) from non-Annex B countries, from projects which are aimed at reducing greenhouse gases. Reduction thus achieved has to be in addition to any that would have accrued or been achieved even otherwise (9). Promotion of sustainable development by industrialized countries Annex I countries are required to also integrate sustainable development priorities in their emission reduction efforts through activities such as enhancement of energy efficiency in relevant sectors, protection and enhancement of carbon sinks and reservoirs, promotion of sustainable forms of agriculture and of new and renewable energy options (9). Further negotiations led to defining three mechanisms for emissions abatement. They are 1) joint implementation (JI) of projects that generate credits among the industrialized counties, 2) a Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) in which industrialized countries make investments in developing countries to both reduce emissions and promote sustainable development, in return earning credits for emissions reduction, and 3) international emissions trading (IET) among Annex 1 countries. The first two mechanisms are project-based mechanisms; the third would most likely involve government to government trading. (See Information Sheet 4 for more on these market-based flexibility mechanisms.) For the Kyoto Protocol to enter into force 55 parties, including Annex - I parties together accounting for at least 55 per cent of their total CO2 emissions in 1990, need to ratify it (9). By October 1999 only 16 countries had ratified it, of which Norway was the only Annex 1 country to do so (2). COP-4 at Buenos Aires in 1998 saw Argentina, a non-Annex 1 country, taking on voluntary commitments with financial gains to be derived from emissions trading. Argentina also supported USA's demand for meaningful participation in GHG emission abatement by developing countries. Honduras, several Latin American and African countries, and the USA called for rapid creation of CDM opportunities. India and China said that CDM without emission entitlements for all countries on a per capita basis was not likely to support the sustainable development imperatives of developing countries (6). COP-5 at Bonn in 1999 witnessed deliberations on the limits to tradability of credits. EU demanded that all credits generated through abatement tasks should not be accounted for compliance to commitments, nor should all the credits be traded. This demand was to ensure that industrialized countries also carry out domestic action in order to completely account for compliance with commitments (10). COP-5 also took note of the need to integrate India’s call for ensuring that the parameters of flexibility mechanisms adequately integrate the equity concerns of the developing countries. The need to achieve clearer perspectives on the equity issue has been placed on the agenda for COP-6 to be held at the Hague in the Netherlands in November 2000 (11).
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